Raghupati Ragahav Raja Ram,
Patita Pavana Sita Ram
Sita Ram Sita Ram,
Bhaj Pyare Tu Sita Ram
Ishwara Allah Tere Nam,
Saba Ko Sanmati De Bhagavan

Mahatma Gandhi – A real hero for India

The last day of Gandhiji’s life. Gandhiji handed over the LSS draft to Pyarelal Nayyar to go through as he had written under tension and maybe there were some mistakes.
Gandhiji weighed 109 pounds. He had gained two pounds since he finished his last fast 12 days ago but was still suffering from a terrible cough.

Gandhiji began his Bangla lesson. During his Noakhali visit in 1946, he had started learning Bangla. Meanwhile, the killers were giving final shape to their conspiracy to assassinate the Mahatma. Nathuram Godse came up with a idea to go to the prayer ground wearing a black shawl and with an old-styled camera so that he could shoot Gandhiji while pretending to take a picture. They went down on the street to search for a camera but then they came to a conclusion that the plan was bad as hardly anyone used the old-styled cameras any longer.
Then they come up with the idea of buying a burqa and that Godse would pretend to be burqa-clad Muslim woman and thus could get in for a close shot. They bought the burqa but Nathuram found it very uneasy when he wore it. He thought firing from under might lead him to miss the target. So even this idea was dropped.
Finally Narayan Apte came with a simple but deadly plan. They decided that Nathuram should wear a loose and long shirt so that he can hide his pistol in the pocket of his trousers and so went to the market and purchased it.

At Birla House, Gandhiji was meeting many visitors. But the most important meeting was yet to take place. A meeting which would save a split in Congress and which would bridge the differences between his two disciples Nehru and Patel. Gandhiji had convinced Vallabhai Patel to withhold his resignation and that three of them (Gandhiji, Home Minister Vallabhai Patel and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru) would sit down together and thrash out the differences.

While Gandhiji was talking to Vallabhai Patel to avoid the split, Abha, came with his evening meal of goat’s milk, boiled vegetable and orange juice. After his meal, he sat on his spinning wheel, still talking to Patel. Nearby, the killers were wandering in the gardens beyond the room where Gandhiji turned his wheel.

Gandhiji was late for his prayer. Abha and Manu were scared to interfere in their conversation but finally Manu gestured at his watch. Gandhiji glanced at his old watch and said to Patel, “It’s time for me to go God’s meeting”. With Abha and Manu, his two great grand-nieces and walking sticks, Gandhiji went towards the prayer ground. Gandhiji was upset for the delay and said to them, “You are my watches, why should I consult a watch? I do not like this delay at all. I cannot tolerate even one minute’s delay for prayers.”

Godse was nervous but determined to accomplish his task. Manu saw an advancing stout young man in a khaki dress. Godse took the pistol from his pocket and bowed to touch Gandhiji’s feet. Manu thought he wanted to touch Gandhiji’s feet, and so she gently came in the way and murmured, “Brother, Bapu is already ten minutes late”. At that instant, Godse pushed Manu aside and before she could recover, he pulled the trigger three times. All the three bullets passed through the slender body of Gandhiji. The idol of non-violence could only gasp, “He Ram!” before slumping on the ground. It was 5.17 pm January 30, 1948.

An All India radio broadcast simply said: “Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in New Delhi at twenty past five this afternoon. His assassin was a Hindu.” The last sentence was included on order from Lord Mountbatten. With this, the slaughter had been avoided and it now remained to India to mourn.

Gandhiji had fought a lifelong battle for a free and united India; and yet, when the country was divided, he urged that the two parts respect and befriend one another. Other Indians were less forgiving. The assassin, who surrendered afterwards, was a Brahmin from Pune named Nathuram Godse, the editor of an extremist Hindu newspaper who had denounced Gandhiji as “an appeaser of Muslims”. Gandhiji’s death led to an extraordinary outpouring of grief, with rich tributes being paid to him from across the political spectrum in India, and moving appreciations coming from such international figures as George Orwell and Albert Einstein

The ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were split in portions and sent to all states of India to be scattered in rivers. Part of Gandhi’s ashes rest in Raj Ghat, near Delhi, India. Part of Mahatma Gandhi’s ashes are at the Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.

The nation remembers and pays its respectful homage to Gandhiji on his 64th death anniversary today, 30th January 2012. Gandhiji was shot dead by a Hindu fanatic on this day in 1948, almost 6 months after India won Independence under his leadership. At 1100 hours today, the entire nation pays homage by standing still and observing silence.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS – General

12. Definition.—In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires, “the State’’ includes the Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India
13. Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.—
1. All laws in force in theterritoryofIndiaimmediately before the commencement of this Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.
2. this Part aThe State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by nd any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void.
3. In this article, unless the context otherwise requires,
1. “law” includes any Ordinance, order, bye-law, rule, regulation, notification, custom or usage having in theterritoryofIndiathe force of law
2. “laws in force” includes laws passed or made by a Legislature or other competent authority in the territory of India before the commencement of this Constitution and not previously repealed, notwithstanding that any such law or any part thereof may not be then in operation either at all or in particular areas.
4. ¹ Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under article 368.

Right to Equality

14. Equality before law.—The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within theterritory ofIndia.
15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.—
1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them.
2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to—
1. access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
2. the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.
3. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children.
4. Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.²
16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.—
1. There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the State.
3. Nothing in this article shall prevent Parliament from making any law prescribing, in regard to a class or classes of employment or appointment to an office ³[under the Government of, or any local or other authority within, a State or Union territory, any requirement as to residence within that State or Union territory] prior to such employment or appointment.
4. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State.
   ⁴[(4A) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for reservation ⁵[in matters of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any class] or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes which, in the opinion of the State, are not adequately represented in the services under the State].
   ⁶[(4B) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from considering any unfilled vacancies of a year which are reserved for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision for reservation made under clause (4) or clause (4A) as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent. reservation on total number of vacancies of that year.]
5. Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any law which provides that the incumbent of an office in connection with the affairs of any religious or denominational institution or any member of the governing body thereof shall be a person professing a particular religion or belonging to a particular denomination.
17. Abolition of Untouchability.—“Untouchability’’ is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of “Untouchability’’ shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
18. Abolition of titles.—
1. No title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State.
2. No citizen ofIndiashall accept any title from any foreign State.
3. No person who is not a citizen of India shall, while he holds any office of profit or trust under the State, accept without the consent of the President any title from any foreign State.
4. No person holding any office of profit or trust under the State shall, without the consent of the President, accept any present, emolument, or office of any kind from or under any foreign State.

Right to Freedom

19. Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.—
1. All citizens shall have the right—
1. to freedom of speech and expression;
2. to assemble peaceably and without arms;
3. to form associations or unions;
4. to move freely throughout theterritoryofIndia;
5. to reside and settle in any part of the territoryof India; ⁷[and]
6. to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business.⁸
2. ⁹[(2) Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) shall affect the operation of any existing law, or prevent the State from making any law, in so far as such law imposes reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause in the interests of ¹⁰[the sovereignty and integrity of India,] the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.]
3. Nothing in sub-clause (b) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of ¹⁰[the sovereignty and integrity of India or] public order, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause.
4. Nothing in sub-clause (c) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of ¹⁰[the sovereignty and integrity of India or] public order or morality, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause.
5. Nothing in ¹¹[sub-clauses (d) and (e)] of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of any of the rights conferred by the said sub-clauses either in the interests of the general public or for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe.
6. Nothing in sub-clause (g) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the State from making any law imposing, in the interests of the general public, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause, and, in particular, ¹²[nothing in the said sub-clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it relates to, or prevent the State from making any law relating to,—

1.                                                         i.            the professional or technical qualifications necessary for practising any profession or carrying on any occupation, trade or business, or
2.                                                       ii.            the carrying on by the State, or by a corporation owned or controlled by the State, of any trade, business, industry or service, whether to the exclusion, complete or partial, of citizens or otherwise.]

20. Protection in respect of conviction for offences.—
1. No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of a law in force at the time of the commission of the Act charged as an offence, nor be subjected to a penalty greater than that which might have been inflicted under the law in force at the time of the commission of the offence.
2. No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.
3. No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
21. Protection of life and personal liberty.—No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.
    [21A. Right to education.—The State shall provide free and Compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.]¹³
22. Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.¹⁴—
1. No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest nor shall he be denied the right to consult, and to be defended by, a legal practitioner of his choice.
2. Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of such arrest excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to the court of the magistrate and no such person shall be detained in custody beyond the said period without the authority of a magistrate.
3. Nothing in clauses (1) and (2) shall apply—

.            to any person who for the time being is an enemy alien; or

1.                                                        a.            to any person who is arrested or detained under any law providing for preventive detention.

4. No law providing for preventive detention shall authorise the detention of a person for a longer period than three months unless—

.            an Advisory Board consisting of persons who are, or have been, or are qualified to be appointed as, Judges of a High Court has reported before the expiration of the said period of three months that there is in its opinion sufficient cause for such detention:
Provided that nothing in this sub-clause shall authorise the detention of any person beyond the maximum period prescribed by any law made by Parliament under sub-clause (b) of clause (7); or

1.                                                        a.            such person is detained in accordance with the provisions of any law made by Parliament under sub-clauses (a) and (b) of clause (7).

5. When any person is detained in pursuance of an order made under any law providing for preventive detention, the authority making the order shall, as soon as may be, communicate to such person the grounds on which the order has been made and shall afford him the earliest opportunity of making a representation against the order.
6. Nothing in clause (5) shall require the authority making any such order as is referred to in that clause to disclose facts which such authority considers to be against the public interest to disclose.
7. Parliament may by law prescribe—

.            the circumstances under which, and the class or classes of cases in which, a person may be detained for a period longer than three months under any law providing for preventive detention without obtaining the opinion of an Advisory Board in accordance with the provisions of sub-clause (a) of clause (4);

1.                                                        a.            the maximum period for which any person may in any class or classes of cases be detained under any law providing for preventive detention; and
2.                                                       b.            the procedure to be followed by an Advisory Board in an inquiry under sub-clause (a) of clause

Right against Exploitation

23. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.—
1. Traffic in human beings and begar and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited and any contravention of this provision shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
2. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from imposing compulsory service for public purposes, and in imposing such service the State shall not make any discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste or class or any of them.
24. Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.—No child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.

Right to Freedom of Religion

25. Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. –
1. Subject to public order, morality and health and to the other provisions of this Part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion.
2. Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or prevent the State from making any law:-

.            regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice;

1.                                                        a.            providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus.>

Explanation I. – The wearing and carrying of kirpans shall be deemed to be included in the profession of the Sikh religion.
Explanation II. – n sub-clause (b) of clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion, and the reference to Hindu religious institutions shall be construed accordingly.

26. Freedom to manage religious affairs.- Subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right -

1. to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;
2. to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
3. to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and
4. to administer such property in accordance with law.
5. No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds.
6. Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution which is administered by the State but has been established under any endowment or trust which requires that religious instruction shall be imparted in such institution.
7. No person attending any educational institution recognised by the State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.
8. Any section of the citizens residing in theterritoryofIndiaor any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.
9. No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
10. All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
    [(1A)¹⁵ In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.]
11. The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.¹⁶

27. Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.—No person shall be compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination.
28. Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.—

Cultural and Educational Rights

29. Protection of interests of minorities.—

30. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions. —

31. [Compulsory acquisition of property.] Rep. By the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, s. 6 (w.e.f. 20-6-1979). ¹⁷[Saving of Certain Laws]
    ¹⁸[31A. Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc.—
    ¹⁹[(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13, no law providing for—

.        the acquisition by the State of any estate or of any rights therein or the extinguishment or modification of any such rights, or

1. the taking over of the management of any property by the State for a limited period either in the public interest or in order to secure the proper management of the property, or
2. the amalgamation of two or more corporations either in the public interest or in order to secure the proper management of any of the corporations, or
3. the extinguishment or modification of any rights of managing agents, secretaries and treasurers, managing directors, directors or managers of corporations, or of any voting rights of shareholders thereof, or
4. the extinguishment or modification of any rights accruing by virtue of any agreement, lease or licence for the purpose of searching for, or winning, any mineral or mineral oil, or the premature termination or cancellation of any such agreement, lease or licence, shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by ²⁰[article 14 or article 19:]
   Provided that where such law is a law made by the Legislature of a State, the provisions of this article shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been reserved for the consideration of the President, has received his assent:]

²¹[Provided further that where any law makes any provision for the acquisition by the State of any estate and where any land comprised therein is held by a person under his personal cultivation, it shall not be lawful for the State to acquire any portion of such land as is within the ceiling limit applicable to him under any law for the time being in force or any building or structure standing thereon or appurtenant thereto, unless the law relating to the acquisition of such land, building or structure, provides for payment of compensation at a rate which shall not be less than the market value thereof.]
(2) In this article,—
²²[

1. the expression ‘‘estate’’ shall, in relation to any local area, have the same meaning as that expression or its local equivalent has in the existing law relating to land tenures in force in that area and shall also include—

2.  any jagir, inam or muafi or other similar grant and in the States of ²³[Tamil Nadu] and Kerala, any janmam right

i.            any land held under ryotwari settlement;

ii.            any land held or let for purposes of agriculture or for purposes ancillary thereto, including waste land, forest land, land for pasture or sites of buildings and other structures occupied by cultivators of land, agricultural labourers and village artisans;]

1. the expression ‘‘rights’’, in relation to an estate, shall include any rights vesting in a proprietor, sub-proprietor, under-proprietor, tenure-holder, ²⁴[raiyat, under-raiyat] or other intermediary and any rights or privileges in respect of land revenue.]

²⁵[31B. Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.—Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in article 31A, none of the Acts and Regulations specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provisions thereof shall be deemed to be void, or ever to have become void, on the ground that such Act, Regulation or provision is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by, any provisions of this Part, and notwithstanding any judgment, decree or order of any court or Tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts and Regulations shall, subject to the power of any competent Legislature to repeal or amend it, continue in force.]
²⁶[31C. Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.—Notwithstanding anything contained in article 13, no law giving effect to the policy of the State towards securing ²⁷[all or any of the principles laid down in Part IV] shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by ²⁸[article 14 or article 19]; ²⁹and no law containing a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the ground that it does not give effect to such policy:
Provided that where such law is made by the Legislature of a State, the provisions of this article shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been reserved for the consideration of the President, has received his assent.
³⁰31D. [Saving of laws in respect of anti-national activities.] Rep. by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act,1977, s.2 (w.e.f.13-4-1978).

Right to Constitutional Remedies

32. Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part. -

1. The right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this Part is guaranteed.
2. The Supreme Court shall have power to issue directions or orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari, whichever may be appropriate, for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by this Part.
3. Without prejudice to the powers conferred on the Supreme Court by clauses (1) and (2), Parliament may by law empower any other court to exercise within the local limits of its jurisdiction all or any of the powers exercisable by the Supreme Court under clause (2).
4. The right guaranteed by this article shall not be suspended except as otherwise provided for by this Constitution.
   ³¹32A. [Constitutional validity of State laws not to be considered in proceedings under article 32.] Rep. by the Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977, s.3 (w.e.f. 13-4-1978).

33. Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc.³² – Parliament may, by law, determine to what extent any of the rights conferred by this Part shall, in their application to,—

.        the members of the Armed Forces; or

1. the members of the Forces charged with the maintenance of public order; or
2. persons employed in any bureau or other organisation established by the State for purposes of intelligence or counter intelligence; or
3. persons employed in, or in connection with, the telecommunication systems set up for the purposes of any Force, bureau or organisation referred to in clauses (a) to (c), be restricted or abrogated so as to ensure the proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline among them

34. Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area. – Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, Parliament may by law indemnify any person in the service of the Union or of a State or any other person in respect of any act done by him in connection with the maintenance or restoration of order in any area within the territory of India where martial law was in force or validate any sentence passed, punishment inflicted, forfeiture ordered or other act done under martial law in such area.
35. Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part. – Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—

1.        Parliament shall have, and the Legislature of a State shall not have, power to make laws—

2.        with respect to any of the matters which under clause (3) of article 16, clause (3) of article 32, article 33 and article 34 may be provided for by law made by Parliament; and

i.            for prescribing punishment for those acts which are declared to be offences under this Part;

ii.          and Parliament shall, as soon as may be after the commencement of this Constitution, make laws for prescribing                                punishment for the acts referred to in sub-clause (ii);

1. any law in force immediately before the commencement of this Constitution in the territory of India with respect to any of the matters referred to in sub-clause (i) of clause (a) or providing for punishment for any act referred to in sub-clause (ii) of that clause shall, subject to the terms thereof and to any adaptations and modifications that may be made therein under article 372, continue in force until altered or repealed or amended by Parliament.

*from the sources

1857

Everyday life in Ancient India

The achievements of the Aryans in the realms of philosophy and metaphysics have been the subject matter of research by very many scholars and valuable light has been shed on these as a result of their labours. But as regards the social and economic conditions in which they lived there is not much authentic information and whatever is known had to be gleaned from such books as Mahabharata and Kautilya’s Arthasastra. The latter book gives us valuable information about the political, social, economic and military organization of Mauryas. The Jataka tales a collection of tales belonging to the pre-Buddhist period give us a revealing glimpse into a period when the fusion between the Aryan and the Dravidian races had been almost completed. It gives us the periods of rule and genealogies of dynasties of kings. Originally the institution of kingship was elective but in the course of time the office became hereditary. The chief source of revenue for the government was from land. The political and economic structure was built up from the village communities. India was famous for her textile goods. There was a thriving metallurgical industry making implements of war.

Trade guilds controlled different trades. The merchant -guilds or associations were so powerful that the king himself could not take away any of their privileges. Another peculiar feature was that those who belonged to particular craft say carpentry were all concentrated in a single village. There was a flourishing trade not only within the country but also with other countries of the world. In the treatment of iron India had made remarkable progress even in ancient times. The iron pillar in Delhi stated to have been erected in the fourth to seventh century AD is a standing monument to this superior knowledge of metallurgy. The pillar has successfully withstood the ravages of time all these years. Panini the great grammarian wrote his learned grammar of Sanskrit in the 7th century BC. Panini’s book is one of the splendid productions of the human mind. The ancient Indians were well versed in astronomy, medicine and surgery. They were mindful of the animals and had hospitals for them. In the field of mathematics their contribution was outstanding. They invented the zero and decimal place-value system. They could divide time into the minutest part. The ancient Indians had vast conception of time and space. There were centres of higher learning corresponding to the modern universities in places like Taxila. It is stated that the eminent grammarian Panini studied in that university. The position of women was honourable at home and in society.

The Arts in Ancient India

Indian art is very intimately associated with Indian religion and philosophy. There is always an irresistible urge to find an expression for spiritual longings. Beauty to Indian artist was something subjective. E.B Havell an eminent critic art is all praise for the ideals of Indian art and the underlying spirit behind it. He says that great art brings out national character and thought in a revealing manner and such art can only be appreciated if the ideals animating it are sympathetically understood. Indian art was not meant to cater to the aesthetic taste of a small elitist society. It was meant to propagate religious ideals and reach as large as audience as possible who for the most past were not literate. The masses of India though not considered to be well educated have reacted through the ages in the most enthusiastic manner to art and revealed their essential culture.

Practically the entire remnants of art of ancient India which have survived the ravages of time are of a religious nature or with some religious motif. Secular art also existed as for example in the wall paintings and sculptures in the palaces of kings proclaiming the transitoriness of human splendour. There are also few critics who hold the view that Indian art did not emphasize spiritual and religious ideas to the exclusion of everything else but also was an expression of the vitality of life of the people and their sense of pure joy in life. In Indian art the temple towers though tall are firmly based on earth. The figures represented are beautiful and a smile on the face is quite common. It is also worthy of note that female forms are depicted with decorative often voluptuous motif and often are made to appear strikingly beautiful. While religious literature in ancient India was the work of learned Brahmans and ascetics religious art was the work of expert craftsmen who were secular in their outlook and who enjoyed thoroughly their life without any thought of asceticism. It is their view of life that is prominently depicted in art and literature.

मुग़ल-साम्राज्य

बाबर

ज़हिर उद-दिन मुहम्मद (14 फरवरी 1483 – 26 दिसम्बर 1530) जो बाबर के नाम से प्रसिद्ध हुआ, एक मुगल शासक था जिसका मूल मध्य एशिया था । वह भारत में मुगल वंश का संस्थापक था । वो तैमूर लंग का परपोता था और विश्वास रखता था कि चंगेज खां उसके वंश का पूर्वज था ।

आरंभिक जीवन

बाबर का जन्म फ़रगना घाटी के अंदिजन नामक शहर में हुआ था जो अब उज्बेकिस्तान में है । वो अपने पिता उमर शेख़ मिर्ज़ा, जो फरगना घाटी के शासक थे तथा जिसको उसने एक ठिगने कद के तगड़े जिस्म, मांसल चेहरे तथा गोल दाढ़ी वाले व्यक्ति के रूप में वर्णित किया है, तथा माता कुतलुग निगार खानम का ज्येष्ठ पुत्र था । हंलांकि बाबर का मूल मंगोलिया के बर्लास कबीले से सम्बन्धित था पर उस कबाले के लोगों पर फारसी तथा तुर्क जनजीवन का बहुत असर रहा था, वे इस्लाम में परिवर्तित हुए तथा उन्होने तुर्केस्तान को अपना वासस्थान बनाया । बाबर की मातृभाषा चागताई भाषा थीपर फ़ारसी, जो उस समय उस स्थान की आम बोलचाल की भाषा थी, में भी वो प्रवीण था । उसने चागताई में बाबरनामा के नाम से अपनी जीवनी लिखी ।

मंगोल जाति (जिसे फ़ारसी में मुगल कहते थे) का होने के बावजूद उसकी जनता और अनुचर तुर्क तथा फ़ारसी लोग थे । उसकी सेना में तुर्क, फारसी, पश्तो के अलावा बर्लास तथा मध्य एशियाई कबीले के लोग भी थे ।

कहा जाता है कि बाबर बहुत ही तगड़ा और शक्तिशाली था । ऐसा भी कहा जाता है कि सिर्फ व्यायाम के लिए वो दो लोगों को अपने दोनो कंधों पर लादकर उन्नयन ढाल पर दौड़ लेता था । लोककथाओं के अनुसार बाबर अपने राह में आने वाले सभी नदियों को तैर कर पार करता था । उसने गंगा को दो बार तैर कर पार किया ।

नाम

बाबर के चचेरे भाई मिर्ज़ा मुहम्मद हैदर ने लिखा है कि उस समय, जब चागताई लोग असभ्य तथा असंस्कृत थे तब उन्हे ज़हिर उद-दिन मुहम्मद का उच्चारण कठिन लगा । इस कारण उन्होंने इसका नाम बाबर रख दिया ।

सैन्य जीवन

सन् १४९४ में १२ वर्ष की आयु में ही उसे फ़रगना घाटी के शासक का पद सौंपा गया । उसके चाचाओं ने इस स्थिति का फायदा उठाया और बाबर को गद्दी से हटा दिया । कई सालों तक उसने निर्वासन में जीवन बिताया जब उसके साथ कुछ किसान और उसके सम्बंधी ही थे । १४९७ में उसने उज़्बेक शहर समरकंद पर आक्रमण किया और ७ महीनों के बाद उसे जीत भी लिया । इसी बीच, जब वह समरकंद पर आक्रमण कर रहा था तब, उसके एक सैनिक सरगना ने फ़रगना पर अपना अधिपत्य जमा लिया । जब बाबर इसपर वापस अधिकार करने फ़रगना आ रहा था तो उसकी सेना ने समरकंद में उसका साथ छोड़ दिया जिसके फलस्वरूप समरकंद और फ़रगना दोनो उसके हाथों से चले गए । सन् १५०१ में उसने समरकंद पर पुनः अधिकार कर लिया पर जल्द ही उसे उज़्बेक ख़ान मुहम्मद शायबानी ने हरा दिया और इस तरह समरकंद, जो उसके जीवन की एक बड़ी ख्वाहिश थी, उसके हाथों से फिर वापस निकल गया।

फरगना से अपने चन्द वफ़ादार सैनिकों के साथ भागने के बाद अगले तील सालों तक उसने अपनी सेना बनाने पर ध्यान केन्द्रित किया । इस क्रम में उसने बड़ी मात्रा में बदख़्शान प्रांत के ताज़िकों को अपनी सेना में भर्ती किया । सन् १५०४ में हिन्दूकुश की बर्फ़ीली चोटियों को पार करके उसने काबुल पर अपना नियंत्रण स्थापित किया । नए साम्राज्य के मिलने से उसने अपनी किस्मत के सितारे खुलने के सपने देखे । कुछ दिनों के बाद उसने हेरात के एक तैमूरवंशी हुसैन बैकरह, जो कि उसका दूर का रिश्तेदार भी था, के साथ मुहम्मद शायबानी के विरुद्ध सहयोग की संधि की । पर १५०६ में हुसैन की मृत्यु के कारण ऐसा नहीं हो पाया और उसने हेरात पर अपना नियंत्रण स्थापित कर लिया । पर दो महीनो के भीतर ही, साधनों के अभाव में उसे हेरात छोड़ना पड़ा । अपनी जीवनी में उसने हेरात को “बुद्धिजीवियों से भरे शहर” के रूप में वर्णित किया है । वहां पर उसे युईगूर कवि मीर अली शाह नवाई की रचनाओं के बारे में पता चला जो चागताई भाषा को साहित्य की भाषा बनाने के पक्ष में थे । शायद बाबर को अपनी जीवनी चागताई भाषा में लिखने की प्रेरणा उन्हीं से मिली होगी ।

काबुल लौटने के दो साल के भीतर ही एक और सरगना ने उसके ख़िलाफ़ विद्रोह किया और उसे काबुल से भागना पड़ा । जल्द ही उसने काबुल पर पुनः अपना नियंत्रण स्थापित कर लिया । इधर सन् १५१० में फ़ारस के शाह इस्माईल प्रथम, जो सफ़ीवी वंश का शासक था, ने मुहम्मद शायबानी को हराकर उसकी हत्या कर डाली । इस स्थिति को देखकर बाबर ने हेरात पर पुनः नियंत्रण स्थापित किया । इसके बाद उसने शाह इस्माईल प्रथम के साथ मध्य एशिया पर मिलकर अधिपत्य जमाने के लिए एक समझौता किया । शाह इस्माईल की मदद के बदले में उमने साफ़वियों की श्रेष्ठता स्वीकार की तथा खुद एवम् अपने अनुयायियों को साफ़वियों की प्रभुता के अधीन समझा । इसके उत्तर में शाह इस्माईल ने बाबर को उसकी बहन ख़ानज़दा से मिलाया जिसे शायबानी, जिसे शाह इस्माईल ने हाल ही में हरा कर मार डाला था, ने कैद में रख़ा हुआ था और उससे विवाह करने की बलात् कोशिश कर रहा था । शाह ने बाबर को ऐश-ओ-आराम तथा सैन्य हितों के लिये पूरी सहायता दी जिसका ज़बाब बाबर ने अपने को शिया परम्परा में ढाल कर दिया । उसने शिया मुसलमानों के अनुरूप वस्त्र पहनना आरंभ किया । शाह इस्माईल के शासन काल में फ़ारस शिया मुसलमानों का गढ़ बन गया और वो अपने आप को सातवें शिया इमाम मूसा अल क़ाज़िम का वंशज मानता था । वहां सिक्के शाह के नाम में ढलते थे तथा मस्ज़िद में खुतबे शाह के नाम से पढ़े जाते थे हंलांकि क़ाबुल में सिक्के और खुतबे बाबर के नाम से ही थे । बाबर समरकंद का शासन शाह इस्माईल के सहयोगी की हैसियत से चलाता था ।

शाह की मदद से बाबर ने बुखारा पर चढ़ाई की । वहां पर बाबर, एक तैमूरवंशी होने के कारण, लोगों की नजर में उज़्बेकों से मुक्तिदाता के रूप में देखा गया और गांव के गांव उसको बधाई देने के लिए खाली हो गए । इसके बाद फारस के शाह की मदद को अनावश्यक समझकर उसने शाह की सहायता लेनी बंद कर दी । अक्टूबर १५११ में उसने समरकंद पर चढ़ाई की और एक बार फिर उसे अपने अधीन कर लिया । वहां भी उसका स्वागत हुआ और एक बार फिर गांव के गांव उसको बधाई देने के लिए खाली हो गए । वहां सुन्नी मुलसमानों के बीच वह शिया वस्त्रों में एकदम अलग लग रहा था । हंलांकि उसका शिया हुलिया सिर्फ शाह इस्माईल के प्रति साम्यता को दर्शाने के लिए थी, उसने अपना शिया स्वरूप बनाए रखा । यद्यपि उसने फारस के शाह को खुश करने हेतु सुन्नियों का नरसंहार नहीं किया पर उसने शिया के प्रति आस्था भी नहीं छोड़ी जिसके कारण जनता में उसके प्रति भारी अनास्था की भावना फैल गई । इसके फलस्वरूप, ८ महीनों के बाद, उज्बेकों ने समरकंद पर फिर से अधिकार कर लिया ।

उत्तर भारत पर चढ़ाई

दिल्ली सल्तनत पर ख़िलज़ी राजवंश के पतन के बाद अराजकता की स्थिति बनी हुई थी । तैमूरलंग के आक्रमण के बाद सैय्यदों ने स्थिति का फ़ायदा उठाकर दिल्ली की सत्ता पर अधिपत्य कायम कर लिया । तैमुर लंग के द्वारा पंजाब का शासक बनाए जाने के बाद खिज्र खान ने इस वंश की स्थापना की थी । बाद में लोदी राजवंश के अफ़ग़ानों ने सैय्यदों को हरा कर सत्ता हथिया ली थी ।

इब्राहिम लोदी

बाबर को लगता था कि दिल्ली सल्तनत पर फिर से तैमूरवंशियों का शासन होना चाहिए । एक तैमूरवंशी होने के कारण वो दिल्ली सल्तनत पर कब्जा करना चाहता था । उसने सुल्तान इब्राहिम लोदी को अपनी इच्छा से अवगत कराया  । इब्राहिम लोदी के जबाब नहीं आने पर उसने छोटे-छोटे आक्रमण करने आरंभ कर दिये । सबसे पहले उसने कंधार पर कब्जा किया । इधर शाह इस्माईल को तुर्कों के हाथों भारी हार का सामना करना पड़ा । इस युद्ध के बार शाह इस्माईल तथा बाबर, दोनों ने बारूदी हथियारों की सैन्य महत्ता समझते हुए इसका उपयोग अपनी सेना में आरंभ किया । इसके बाद उसने इब्राहिम लोदी पर आक्रमण किया । पानीपत में लड़ी गई इस लड़ाई को पानीपत का प्रथम युद्ध के नाम से जानते हैं । इसमें बाबर की सेना इब्राहिम लोदी की सेना के सामने बहुत छोटी थी । पर सेमा में संगठन के अभाव में इब्राहिम लोदी यह युद्ध बाबर से हार गया । इसके बाद दिल्ली की सत्ता पर बाबर का अधिकार हो गया और उसने सन १५२६ में मुगलवंश की नींव डाली ।

राजपूत

राणा सांगा के नेतृत्व में राजपूत काफी संगठित तथा शक्तिशाली हो चुके थे । राजपूतों ने एक बड़ा सा क्षेत्र स्वतंत्र कर लिया था और वे दिल्ली की सत्ता पर काबिज होना चाहते थे । इब्राहिम लोदी से लड़ते लड़ते बाबर की सेना को बहुत क्षति पहुंची थी । बाबर की सेना राजपूतों की आधी भी नहीं थी । मार्च १५२७ में खानवा की लड़ाई राजपूतों तथा बाबर की सेना के बीच लड़ी गई । राजपूतों का जीतना निश्चित लग रहा था । पर युद्ध के दौरान तोमरों ने राणा सांगा का साथ छोड़ दिया और बाबर से जा मिले । इसके बाद राणा सांगा को भागना पड़ा और एक आसान सी लग रही जीत उसके हाथों से निकल गई । इसके एक साल के बाद किसी मंत्री द्वारा जहर खिलाने कारण राणा सांगा की मौत हो गई और बाबर का सबसे बड़ा डर उसके माथे से टल गया । इसके बाद बाबर दिल्ली की गद्दी का अविवादित अधिकारी बन गया । आने वाले दिनों में मुगल वंश ने भारत की सत्ता पर ३०० सालों तक राज किया ।

बाबर के द्वारा मुगलवंश की नींव रखने के बाद मुगलों ने भारत की संस्कृति पर अपना अमिट छाप छोड़ी ।

अन्तिम के दिन

कहा जाता है कि अपने पुत्र हुमायुं के बीमार पड़ने पर उसने अल्लाह से हुमायुं को स्वस्थ्य करने तथा उसकी बीमारी खुद को दिये जाने की प्रार्थना की थी । इसके बाद बाबर का स्वास्थ्य बिगड़ गया और अंततः वो १५३० में ४८ वर्ष की उम्र में मर गया । उसकी ईच्छा थी कि उसे काबुल में दफ़नाया जाए पर पहले उसे आगरा में दफ़नाया गया । लगभग नौ वर्षों के बाद शेरशाह सूरी ने उसकी इच्छा पूरी की और उसे काबुल में दफ़ना दिया ।

हुमायूँ

हुमायूँ एक मुगल शासक था । प्रथम मुग़ल सम्राट बाबर के पुत्र नसीरुद्दीन हुमायुं (6 मार्च 1508 – 22 फरवरी, 1556) थे। यद्यपि उन के पास साम्राज्य बहुत साल तक नही रहा, पर मुग़ल साम्राज्य की नींव में हुमायुं का योगदान है।

बाबर की मृत्यु के पश्चात हुमायूँ ने १५३० में भारत की राजगद्दी संभाली और उनके सौतेले भाई कामरान मिर्ज़ा ने काबुल और लाहौर का शासन ले लिया। बाबर ने मरने से पहले ही इस तरह से राज्य को बाँटा ताकि आगे चल कर दोनों भाइयों में लड़ाई न हो। कामरान आगे जाकर हुमायूँ के कड़े प्रतिद्वंदी बने। हुमायूँ का शासन अफ़गानिस्तान, पाकिस्तान और उत्तर भारत के हिस्सों पर 1530-1540, और फिर 1555-1556 तक रहा।

भारत में उन्होने शेरशाह सूरी से हार पायी। 10 साल बाद, ईरान साम्राज्य की मदद से वे अपना शासन दोबारा पा सके। इस के साथ ही, मुग़ल दरबार की संस्कृति भी मध्य एशियन से इरानी होती चली गयी।

हुमायुं के बेटे का नाम जलालुद्दीन मुहम्मद अकबर था।

अकबर

जन्म

बाबर की मृत्यु के दस साल के भीतर ही (सन्‌ १५३०) उनके पुत्र हुमायूँ के हाथ से गद्दी निकल गई । वह जान बचाने के लिये इधर-उधर मारा मारा फिर रहा था। इसी बीच सन्‌ १५४१ में हमीदा बानो से हुमायूँ की शादी हुई और सन्‌ १५४२ में अकबर का जन्म हुआ। अकबर के माँ-बाप अपनी जान बचाने इरान भाग गये और अकबर अपने पिता के छोटे भाइयों के संरक्षण में रहा। पहले वह कुछ दिनों कंदहार में रहा और १५४५ से काबुल में। हुमायूँ की अपने छोटे भाइयों से बराबर ठनी ही रही इसलिये चाचा लोगों के यहाँ अकबर कि स्थिति बंदी से कुछ ही अच्छी थी। यद्यपि सभी उसके साथ अच्छा व्यवहार करते थे और शायद दुलार प्यार कुछ ज्यादा ही होता था।

आरंभिक काल

सन्‌ १५४५ में जब हुमायूँ ने फिर से काबुल पर अधिकार कर लिया तो अकबर अपने पिता के संरक्षण में पहुंचा। लेकिन १५४५-१५४६ की छोटी-सी अवधि में अकबर के चाचा कमरान ने काबुल पर पुनः अधिकार कर लिया था। मगर अकबर अपने माता-पिता के संरक्षण में ही रहा। उन्होंने अपने पुत्र को अच्छी से अच्छी शिक्षा देने की चेष्टा की किंतु उससे विमुख ही रहा, परंपरागत पढ़ाई में उसकी बिलकुल रूची नहीं थी। परवर्ती काल में अकबर ने अपने आप को निरक्षर बताया है किंतु इस आत्मस्वीकृति में सत्यांश बस इतना है कि उसने स्वयं कभी कुछ नहीं लिखा । अपने परवर्ती जीवन में अकबर को पुस्तकों से बड़ा मोह हो गया और वह दूसरों से पढ़वाकर उन्हें सुना करता था।

अपने खोये हुए राज्य को पुनः प्राप्त करने के लिये हुमायूँ के अनवरत प्रयत्न अंततः सफल हुये और वह सन्‌ १५५५ में हिंदुस्तान पहुंच सका किंतु सन्‌ १५५६ में राजधानी दिल्ली में उसकी मृत्यु हो गई। गुरदासपुर के कलनौर नामक स्थान पर जब अकबर की ताजपोशी हुई उस समय उसकी उम्र मात्र चौदह वर्ष थी। उस समय मुगल राज्य केवल काबुल से दिल्ली तक ही फैला हुआ था। और हेमु के नेतृत्व में अफगान सेना पुनः संगठित होकर उसके सम्मुख चुनौती बनकर खड़ी थी।

शासन

राज्य की सुरक्षा का दायित्व बालक अकबर के संरक्षक बैरम खां के कंधों पर था। प्रारंभ के चार वर्षों तक बैरम खां ने ही शासन संभाला। किंतु सन्‌ १५६० में अकबर ने स्वयं सत्ता संभाल ली और बैरम खां को निकाल बाहर किया। अब अकबर के स्वयं के हाथों में सत्ता थी – यद्यपि इस तथ्य को समझने में कुछेक लोगों को काफी समय लगा। उस समय अनेक गंभीर कठनाइयाँ आईं जैसे – शम्सुद्दीन अतका खां की हत्या पर उभरा जन आक्रोश (१५६३), उज़बेक विद्रोह (१५६४-६५) और मिर्ज़ा भाइयों का विद्रोह (१५६६-६७) किंतु अकबर ने बड़ी कुशलता से इन समस्याओं को हल कर लिया। अपनी कल्पनाशीलता से उसने अपने सामंतों की संख्या बढ़ाई। सन्‌ १५६२ में आमेर के शासक से उसने समझौता किया – इस प्रकार राजपूत राजा भी उसकी ओर हो गये। इसी प्रकार उसने इरान से आने वालों को भी बड़ी सहयाता दी। भारतीय मुसलमानों को भी उसने अपने कुशल व्यवहार से अपनी ओर कर लिया। धार्मिक सहिष्णुता का उसने अनोखा परिचय दिया – हिंदु तीर्थ स्थानों पर लगा कर हटा लिया गया (सन्‌ १५६३)। इससे पूरे राज्यवासियों को अनुभव हो गया कि वह एक परिवर्तित नीति अपनाने में सक्षम है।

जहांगीर

जहांगीर मुगल सम्राट था और वह अकबर के पुत्र थे। इनका बचपन का नाम सलीम था।

शाहजहां

शाहजहां मुगल सम्राट। शाहजहाँ अपनी न्यायप्रियता और वैभवविलास के कारण अपने काल में बड़े लोकप्रिय रहे। किन्तु इतिहास में उनका नाम केवल इस कारण नहीं लिया जाता। शाहजहाँ का नाम एक ऐसे आशिक के तौर पर लिया जाता है जिसने अपनी बेग़म मुमताज़ महल के लिये विश्व की सबसे ख़ूबसूरत इमारत ताज महल बनाने का यत्न किया।

औरंगजेब

बहादुरशाह ज़फ़र

अबू ज़फ़र सिराजुद्दीन मुहम्मद बहादुरशाह ज़फ़र (उर्दू: ابو ظفر سِراجُ الْدین محمد بُہادر شاہ ظفر) या बहादुरशाह द्वितीय, जिसका ज़फ़र उपनाम था, भारत में मुगलों का अंतिम सम्राट था। उसका जन्म 24 अक्तूबर 1775 में हुआ था और वह अकबर शाह द्वितीय का हिंदू पत्नी लालबाई से उत्पन्न पुत्र था। वह 28 सितंबर 1838 को अपने पिता की मृत्यु के बाद सिंहासन पर बैठा

Viswakarma  is also known as Bishwakarma Puja.
The month of September brings with it an spirit of the forthcoming festivities. The lovely weather of early autumn, with cloud spread across the sky looks more colorful with the numerous kites floating side by side on this festive day.
According to mythology it is Viswakarma who created the entire universe as well as the heaven and the earth. He has four hands, carrying a water-pot, a book, a noose and craftsman’s tools. Viswakarma is also credited for creating the missiles used in the mythological era, including the Vajra the sacred weapon of Lord Indra, from the bones of sage Dadhichi. He is regarded as the supreme worker, the very essence of excellence and quality in craftsmanship. Viswakarma is the divine architect of the whole universe.
Vishwakarma Pooja, industries, factories, companies related to machinery and tools are in glad mood. In Orissa and Bengal, colourful kites are flown all over the sky on Vishwakarma Pooja. Machinery and tools are kept aside and worshipped on this festival. god is offered ‘naivedya and after the puja ‘naivedya is distributed as ‘Prasad

Our Faithful Friend” helps us to build intimacy with God. It shows why the Lord is our faithful friend in every situation of life. The best thing about books is that we can learn from the author’s experience. What takes a person decades to learn has been put in an understandable way into books. It is thanks to such wonderful gifts of learning that we can enrich and improve our lives. Books are the most sincere, faithful and never falling friends. Everybody may deceive you but books will always remain beside during your bad times. Books are your friends, teachers and guides as well. Just reading a book is of no use until it is properly understood with interest. Books always want its reader to gain something from it. Book enthusiasts, some of whom are writers, journalists, columnists, editors, authors and working professionals can afford to make their own mini-library.  However, at the onset of their collection, they have started from making use of the corner book shelves.  As time progresses, unknowingly they have a box of novels and books already given by a colleague either as a gift or a remembrance. It is a better request than anything else. As a hobby, book collection is indeed very purposeful in nature. Books fire the imagination, unlike watching the screen, where it’s someone else’s imagination” Debra says. “When you’re reading a book, you have to fill in all the blanks, and I think it does more for your synapses to fill in the blanks.

Tulsi is a medicinal plant that confers longevity. Its therapeutic use proves miraculously successful. Each part of the Tulsi plant possesses medicinal properties. If eleven Tulsi leaves are taken with four black pepper seeds, malaria, periodic fever and all other ailments will be cured.Gradhrasivata, or sharp pain in nerves of the body. If steam from boiling water containing Tulsi leaves is used for fomentation of the affected part, much relief` is obtained. The refreshing herbal flavor of the sacred Organic Tulsi awakens the senses and invigorates the spirit as it hydrates the body for pure refreshment through and through. The leaves of Tulsi can also strengthen the stomach and can enhance digestion. Tulsi can aid in the healing of the common cold, sore throats, and fever. Drinking Tulsi tea in a liter of boiling water can help reduce a temperature. The juice that is found in the herb’s leaves is what makes the fever reduction possible. Drinking Tulsi tea can help sooth raw nerves and help to lower stress levels. Blood pressure can be lowered by drinking tea with this herb. Drinking Tulsi tea regularly can protect the eyes from free radical damage, and can reduce your chance of getting glaucoma, macular degeneration, cataracts, vision defects, and opthalmia. The juice of the leaves is given in catarrh and bronchitis in children. The plant is said to have carminative, diaphoretic and stimulant properties. t is also wonderful drink for comforting digestive issues, promoting a healthy metabolism and stimulating weight loss. Organic Tulsi tea is available in different combinations like, Organic Tulsi Green Tea- a combination of organic Tulsi and green tea, Organic Tulsi Ginger Tea – a combination of organic Tulsi and Organic Ginger. ndia for over five millennia for its remarkable healing properties. Like Yerba Mate and Rooibos, which were little known a few years ago, Tulsi is at the forefront of today’s herbal medicinal remedies.

Water is our lifeline that feeds and bathes us. In ancient cultures water represented the very essence of life. The Romans were the first to pipe water into their growing cities, especially with their aqueducts. They also realized that sewage water could cause damage to their people, and needed to be removed from large areas of people. Water has always been perceived as a gift from the gods as it rained from the heavens. Water is one of nature’s most important gifts to mankind; it is a key component in determining the quality of our lives. Water makes up more than two thirds of the weight of the human body, and without it, we would die in a few days. Water plays very important role in everyone’s life Water serves as a lubricant Water forms the base for saliva, fluids that surround the joints, regulates the body temperature, as the cooling and heating is distributed through perspiration. It Water helps to alleviate constipation by moving food through the intestinal tract and thereby eliminating waste- the best detox agent. Did you know that water is also a large part of weather patterns?  Aside from actually being part of the weather in the form of rain sleet and snow, large bodies of water can keep a regions temperature milder than a location even just a few miles inland. The first civilizations of man started near rivers. The Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates were where man began to establish themselves on the earth. In all parts of the world, the major rivers played a major part in the evolution of man. As long as there is life on this planet, water will be here. Without it, life as we know it is impossible. Thus it is important for us to know how precious water.

Water is essential to the health and functioning of our body, mind as well as soul. Indeed water is the material basis of all living things according to the Greek philosopher Tales. Even before we are born we are surrounded by water-like amniotic fluid and travel down a watery birth canal to be born into this world which is mostly covered by water. So its importance cannot be emphasized enough.

Depending on the area and terrain National Parks provide ample opportunities to the visitors to have a close encounters with the wilds. But what is so exquisite about the Indian National Parks is the variance that they are equipped with. Whether it comes to the flora, avifauna, and aqua fauna, or witnessing various wild forms in their natural surroundings on an elephant or inside a jeep, wild ventures in are simply amazing.  Nadia is unique in the richness and diversity of its vegetation and wildlife. India’s national parks and wild life sanctuaries (including bird sanctuaries) from Ladakh in Himalayas to Southern tip of Tamil Nadu, are outstanding  and the country continues to “WOW” the tourists with its rich bio-diversity and heritage.  Wildlife sanctuaries in India attracts people from all over the world as the rarest of rare species are found here. With 96 national parks and over 500 wildlife sanctuaries, the range and diversity of India’s wildlife heritage is matchless. Some of the important sanctuaries in India are The Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve – Uttaranchal, Kanha National Park and Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Ranthambhor National Park – Sawai Madhopur, Gir National Park – Sasangir (Gujarat) etc. Wildlife Conservation Society(WCS) India in association with other NGO partners and tribal people, is making every possible effort to develop new models of wildlife conservation to preserve India’s most treasured fauna and to protect the environment. One of the major mega diversity countries in the world, India houses a good number of wildlife species found nowhere else on the globe. India is an exciting place to be for wildlife enthusiasts and nature lovers from around the world. The most luxuriant rain forests, however, lie on the southwestern coast, in Kerala – where the lagoons are canopied by coconut trees, leading to the longest uninterrupted stretch of rain forests in the country. The andaman Islands and Arunachal Pradesh are other regions with well preserved rain forests. Dense sandal, teak and sisoo (Dalbergia sissoo) forests, where elephants roam wild and free, flourish on the wet Karnataka plateau. Nudging this is the dry Telengana plateau in Andhra Pradesh, which offers only thorny scrub and wild Indian date palm.

This is one of the famous songs that people sing on the occasion of Janmashtami, the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna the eighth avatar (Incarnation) of Lord Vishnu. This religious festival is celebrated all over India in the month of August/September on the ashtami of Krishna Paksh or the eighth day in the month of Bhadon according to the Hindu calendar with great devotion and zeal. Janmashtami is also known as Gokulashtami, Krishnasthami, Srijayanti. Maha Vishnu took various avatars to protect the mortal world from the evildoers and sinners. One such incarnation was his birth as the child of King Vasudeva and Queen Devaki Devi. Gokul Ashtami is the birthday of Lord Krishna. It falls on the 8th day of the dark half of the month of ‘Bhadrapada’ (August-September) and is one of the greatest of all Hindu festivals. Lord Krishna was born at midnight. The eighth Avatara, Krishna, who has become the Beloved of India and the world at large, had a threefold objective: to destroy the wicked demons to play the leading role in the great war fought on the battlefield of Kurukshetra (where he delivered His wonderful message of the Gita) and to become the centre of a marvellous development of the Bhakti schools of India. According to Puranas, Krishna is the incarnation of Lord Vishnu, who took birth to kill the evil king Kansa and free the people of Mathura and other nearby towns from his cruelty and save them from his evil clutches. Kansa was the maternal uncle of Sri Krishna who was destined to be killed by the eighth child of his beloved sister Devki.

Goa is a small state on the western coast of India. Goa was the first part of India that was colonized by Europeans and also the last to be liberated. In the past it was known as Govapuri, Gomant or Aprant. The Arab sailors knew it as Sindabur, or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa. Goa is one of those states of India to have a fascinating history. In fact, of all other things the rich history of Goa has made this smallest state of India famous and has interested historians through years. The history of Goa, which is popularly known as the beach capital of India, dates back to 3rd century BC. It was during this time Goa became a part of Mauryan Empire. Colonial rule, glorious culture, oppressive rulers make the rich history of Goa. Portuguese in Goa is however responsible only not for destruction and conversion; they have also helped the state in their architecture, cuisine and lifestyle. A number of beautiful churches, like St. Cajetan church and Bom Jesus basilica have been built during the rule of Portuguese. Though India earned her independence from the British rule in the year 1947, Goa had remained a Portuguese colony. In the year 1961, erstwhile Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, sent armed forces and under name of ‘Operation Vijay’, the Indian army took over Goa in just two days. Since then Goa became one of the Union Territories of India. Goa has a rich history, which is both intriguing and appalling to historians and the common man. Goa was plundered by a number of rulers and lastly by the Portuguese from whom Goa sought independence in 1961. Given below is a brief insight into the history of Goa, its discovery, plundering, different rulers and the smooth transition to the present. The original name of Goa was actually Konkan and the people were known as Konkani and so was the language. Today Goa boasts of a rich historical legacy and one can see an amalgamation of the past in the present, beautifully merging into one another. The Portuguese built extensive churches with exquisite architecture and one can see the Portugal influence in the buildings of Goa even now. Even today Christianity is one of the major religions being followed here in Goa apart from Hinduism. On the other hand, its control of the seas and above all the lucrative spice trade made it a much-coveted prize for rival colonial powers. Until a century before the arrival of the Portuguese adventure Vasco Da Gama who landed near Kozhikode in Kerala in 1498, Goa had belonged for over a thousand years to the kingdom of Kadamba. In the interim it had been successfully conquered by the Karnatakan Vijayanagars, the Muslim Bahmanis and Yousuf Adil Shah of Bijapur but the capture of the fort at Panaji by Alfonso De Albuquerque in 1510 signaled the start of a Portuguese occupation that was to last for 450 years. Ironically the primary language used in many schools is none of the above – for most children are actually taught English. The arguments about continuing or abandoning this policy of placing such importance on English rage on. Most feel that continuing use of English is a distinct advantage to their children who will need it if they are to find good jobs in the future. Meanwhile children in Goa are taught three or four languages as a standard part of the school syllabus.

Current affairs, is the mainstay of the civil service examination, what with one portion of the exam dedicated to general studies. The current affairs of India and international current event affairs, are an important part of the general studies paper, both in the mains and the prelims. At the interview current affairs news rules and decides the rank of the candidate and even whether s/he will get through or not.
Our representatives are well known for making interruptions in affairs of house which brings situation of adjourning. Shillong: August 20, 2010 – the former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi on his 66th birth anniversary, Mother Theresa’s 100th birth anniversary.
We are all concerned about it. Super bug is a global phenomenon. It is not area or country specific. I can tell you this with all the responsibility under my command,” Minister of State for Health Dinesh Trivedi told reporters outside Parliament. Accelerating its fight against child labors, India is now preparing a roadmap for ratification of an international convention that prohibits child labors in hazardous occupations.
Nepal’s Parliament failed to elect a Prime Minister for the fourth time. Both Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) chairman Pushpa Kamal Dahal ‘Prachanda’ and Nepali Congress leader Ram Chandra Poudel could not obtain a simple majority of 301 votes in the House of 601 as required by the interim constitution.
The Centre has appointed two full-time members to the 19th Law Commission of India, which was reconstituted in September 2009.Retired Supreme Court Judge P.V. Reddy was Chairman of the Commission. Full-time Members are Justice Shivkumar Sharma, retired judge of the Rajasthan High Court and Amarjit Singh Chandhiok, former Additional Solicitor General of India. sher Noria won the double trap gold by equaling the junior World record of 146 in the 50th World shooting championship in Munich, Germany.
Former Foreign Secretary, Shyam Saran, was sent by India as special envoy to Nepal with a mandate to engage all political parties, including the Maoists, and help build a consensus on the formation of a government. The RBI has hiked the redo rate by 0.25 percentage points to 5.75 per cent and the reverse redo rate by 0.50 percentage point to 4.50 per cent. In a major step for environment protection, the Rajasthan government announced a complete ban on the use of plastic carry-bags all over the State from August 1. A notification declared the entire State a “plastic carry-bag-free zone.”
The Salzburg Festival is once again ready to welcome music and drama fans from around the world. Another major music event celebrates a milestone this year: Schleswig-Holstein’s classical music festival marks its 25th anniversary. Throughout August, the festival will be occupying mansions, barns and churches and even factories and airports. The Film Festival Locarno on Lake Maggiore in Switzerland is a multilingual event, drawing Italian, German and French-speaking film enthusiasts. The festival isn’t so much about glamour as about highlighting the milestones of film.

Shravana Masam or Shravan month also known as Sawan mahina, is very auspicious Hindu month. Each and everyday during the Shravana Mas has some significance. In 2010, Shravan month begins on 26th July and ends on 24th August in North Indian Hindi calendars. In Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada and Telugu Panchangam, Shravan mahina starts on 11th August and ends on 8th September.Shravan is considered the holiest month of the year. Each monday of this month, known as Shravana Somvar, is a special day in Shiva temples where the dharanatra hangs over the linga or the idol to bathe it with holy water, day and night. Devotees pile the linga high with Bel leaves and flowers and fast till sunset. Shravan month is a type of festival very highly considered as auspicious time. People are devotee of Lord Shiva, therefore they do fast (Somvar vrat) and went to temple as a devotee, pray to Lord Shiva. According to a legend the churning of oceans or Samudra Manthan took place in the month of Shravan and it is on a Somvar that Lord ShThiva drank the poison Hala Hala to save the world. In order to lessen the effect of poison the Devas had offered the Ganges water to Lord Shiva. Because of this on Shravana Somvar in Shiva Temples the Shivalinga is bathed with holy water day and night. Devotees pile the linga high with Bel leaves and flowers and fast till sunset. A 24 hour lamp also burns steadily in the temples. It is believed that one can please Lord Shiva in Shravan month by offering milk. It is considered highly auspicious to wear rudraksha beads in Shravan month

The festival of Raksha Bandhan is entirely dedicated to the love and affection shared between a brother and a sister. On this day, sisters pray for long life of their brothers and ask God to bless them with his blessings. Brothers, in turn, give them enticing rakhi gifts and promise to care life long. This custom has been there since time immemorial. Various other believes are associated with Rakhi and therefore, people follow certain custom and tradition to celebrate this festival. The festival is marked by the tying of a rakhi, or holy thread by the sister on the wrist of her brother. The brother in return offers a gift to his sister and vows to look after her as she presents sweets to her brother. The brother and sister traditionally feed one another sweets. The rakhi may also be tied on other special occasions to show solidarity and kinship (not necessarily only among brothers and sisters), as was done during the Indian independence movement. A wide ranges of Rakhi’s, Rakhi Gifts and Rakhi Return Gifts flooding the market with latest designs & styles. Raksha bandhan is a one day festival, but the rakhi thread is symbolic of all the love and care cultivated between brother and sister, so we encourage you to choose your Rakhi with love and make your Raksha Bandhan memorable life-long with your brother and sister. In India and many Indian communities, anyone close to you who does not have a sister or brother of their own may be honored as brothers and sisters on this day. Once, Indra, the king of heaven was confronted by the demon king – the Daitya-raaja – in a long-drawn battle. At one stage, the Daitya-raaja got better of Indra and drove him into wilderness. Indra, humbled and crest-fallen, sought the advice of Brihaspati, the Guru of Gods. The Guru told him to bide his time, prepare himself and then take on the mighty demon. He also indicated that the auspicious moment for sallying forth was the Shraavana Poornima. On that day, Shachee Devi, the wife of Indra, accompanied by Brihaspati tied Raakhi around Indra’s right-wrist. Indra then advanced against the Daitya-raaja, vanquished him and reestablished his sovereignty

The flag, by law, is to be made of khadi a special type of hand-spun cloth of cotton or silk made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocate it to the regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha was the sole manufacturer of the flag. First, three colours clearly dominate – saffron on top, white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom. There is a blue Ashok Chakra, a wheel with 24 spokes, in the centre of the white band. When the Indian freedom struggle was on, a charkha (spinning wheel) was placed in the white band to symbolise the spirit of swadeshi. The man who designed Tiranga Few of us associate the name of Pingali Venkayya with anything else other than as being the original designer of the national flag. But how many of us know that this versatile genius was a prolific writer, a Japanese lecturer and a geophysicist? Born on August 2, 1876 to Hanumantharayudu and Venkataratnamma at Bhatlapennumaru in the Divi taluk in Krishna district, Pingali was a precocious child. After finishing his primary education at Challapalli and school at the Hindu High School, Masulipatnam, he went to Colombo to complete his Senior Cambridge. Enthused by patriotic zeal, he enlisted himself for the Boer war at 19. While in Africa he met Gandhi, and their rapport lasted for more than half a century. On his return to India he worked as a railway guard at Bangalore and Madras and subsequently joined the government service as the plague officer at Bellary. His patriotic zeal, however, did not permit him to stagnate in a permanent job, and his quest for education took him to Lahore where he joined the Anglo-Vedic College, and learnt Japanese and Urdu. He studied Japanese and history under Prof Got.

Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we don’t have anything to eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always looked after by the members of the family. Elders and the respect for elders is a major component in Indian culture. Elders are the driving force for any family and hence the love and respect for elders comes from within and is not artificial. An individual takes blessings from his elders by touching their feet. Elders drill and pass on the Indian culture within us as we grow. Indian culture is as old as the hills and encompasses a wide range of ancient dances. Every region in India has a traditional dance that is an art handed down from generation to generation. The mildness of the Indians has continued till date, despite the aggressiveness of the Muslim conquerors and the reforming zeal of the British, the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Indians are noted for their humanness and calm nature without any harshness in their principles and ideals. In India, there is amazing cultural diversity throughout the country. The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinct cultures and almost every state has carved out its own cultural niche. There is hardly any culture in the world that is as varied and unique as India. India is a vast country, having variety of geographical features and climatic conditions. India is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, including four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. The Indian culture has never been rigid and that’s why it’s surviving with pride in the modern era. It timely imbibes the qualities of various other cultures and comes out as a contemporary and acceptable tradition. That is what unique about the Indian culture..it moves on with the time. There are certain things about India that are famous worldwide, like: Beauty of Indian women lies in the clothes she wears. Very traditional and ethnic yet contemporary Indian Saris are famous worldwide. It is worn with a blouse that covers the upper part of the body. In rural parts a version of sari, called ghagara -choli is very much popular. Choli is like a short blouse that covers the upper part of the body and ghagara is like a long skirt. In order to have a graceful and complete look, women folk carry a duppatta, which is a soft and delicate material of reasonable length thrown over the shoulder.

 Hanumana also told Sri Rama that Sugreev would help in the search of Sita. Hanumana then escorted both the brothers to Sugreev carrying them on his shoulders. Sugreev was very pleased to see Sri Rama. He considered his life worthwhile and as if his every wish had been fulfilled. Then in the presence of Hanumana Sri Rama and Sugreev tied in friendship.
Laxmana then narrated the whole story of how they were sent into exile and how Sita was abducted. Sugreev assured them that there is nothing to worry about, as Sita would certainly be found. Sugreev also told that he had preserved the ornaments of Sita, which she had dropped while being carried by Ravan. Sugreev then showed those ornaments to Rama.

Sri Rama told Laxmana to identify the ornaments. But Laxmana could not do so, saying that those were the ornaments of head and he had never seen at the face of Sita. He however expressed his capability to identify ornaments worn in the feet as he had always focussed his sight at the feet of his sister-in-law. Ornaments of feet were procured at once, which were identified by Laxmana unfailingly. Seeing Sita’s ornaments Rama and Laxmana began to moan in deep sorrow. When Sugreev saw both the brothers in deep sorrow, he assured them that he would leave no stone unturned in finding Sita.

Sugreev’s assurance relieved Sri Rama’s worries to a great extent. He asked Sugreev about the reason why he was living on that mountain.

” HAPPY FRIENDSHIP DAY “

ॐकारेश्वर एक हिन्दू मंदिर है। यह मध्य प्रदेश के खंडवा जिले में स्थित है। यह नर्मदा नदी के बीच मन्धाता या शिवपुरी नामक द्वीप पर स्थित है। यह भगवान शिव के बारह ज्योतिर्लिंगओं में से एक है। यह यहां के मोरटक्का गांव से लगभग 12 मील (20 कि.मी.) दूर बसा है। यह द्वीप हिन्दू पवित्र चिन्ह ॐ के आकार में बना है। यहां दो मंदिर स्थित हैं।

* ॐकारेश्वर
* अमरेश्वर

ॐकारेश्वर का निर्माण नर्मदा नदी से स्वतः ही हुआ है। यह नदी भारत की पवित्रतम नदियों में से एक है, और अब इस पर विश्व का सर्वाधिक बड़ा बांध परियोजना का निर्माण हो रहा है।
जिस ओंकार शब्द का उच्चारण सर्वप्रथम सृष्टिकर्ता विधाता के मुख से हुआ, वेद का पाठ इसके उच्चारण किए बिना नहीं होता है।

इस ओंकार का भौतिक विग्रह ओंकार क्षेत्र है। इसमें 68 तीर्थ हैं। यहाँ 33 करोड़ देवता परिवार सहित निवास करते हैं तथा 2 ज्योतिस्वरूप लिंगों सहित 108 प्रभावशाली शिवलिंग हैं। मध्यप्रदेश में देश के प्रसिद्ध 12 ज्योतिर्लिंगों में से 2 ज्योतिर्लिंग विराजमान हैं। एक उज्जैन में महाकाल के रूप में और दूसरा ओंकारेश्वर में ममलेश्वर (अमलेश्वर) के रूप में विराजमान हैं।

इतिहास

देवी अहिल्याबाई होलकर की ओर से यहाँ नित्य मृत्तिका के 18 सहस्र शिवलिंग तैयार कर उनका पूजन करने के पश्चात उन्हें नर्मदा में विसर्जित कर दिया जाता है। ओंकारेश्वर नगरी का मूल नाम ‘मान्धाता’ है।

कथा

राजा मान्धाता ने यहाँ नर्मदा किनारे इस पर्वत पर घोर तपस्या कर भगवान शिव को प्रसन्न किया और शिवजी के प्रकट होने पर उनसे यहीं निवास करने का वरदान माँग लिया। तभी से उक्त प्रसिद्ध तीर्थ नगरी ओंकार-मान्धाता के रूप में पुकारी जाने लगी। जिस ओंकार शब्द का उच्चारण सर्वप्रथम सृष्टिकर्ता विधाता के मुख से हुआ, वेद का पाठ इसके उच्चारण किए बिना नहीं होता है। इस ओंकार का भौतिक विग्रह ओंकार क्षेत्र है। इसमें 68 तीर्थ हैं। यहाँ 33 करोड़ देवता परिवार सहित निवास करते हैं।

मान्यता

नर्मदा क्षेत्र में ओंकारेश्वर सर्वश्रेष्ठ तीर्थ है। शास्त्र मान्यता है कि कोई भी तीर्थयात्री देश के भले ही सारे तीर्थ कर ले किन्तु जब तक वह ओंकारेश्वर आकर किए गए तीर्थों का जल लाकर यहाँ नहीं चढ़ाता उसके सारे तीर्थ अधूरे माने जाते हैं। ओंकारेश्वर तीर्थ के साथ नर्मदाजी का भी विशेष महत्व है। शास्त्र मान्यता के अनुसार जमुनाजी में 15 दिन का स्नान तथा गंगाजी में 7 दिन का स्नान जो फल प्रदान करता है, उतना पुण्यफल नर्मदाजी के दर्शन मात्र से प्राप्त हो जाता है।

ओंकारेश्वर तीर्थ क्षेत्र में चौबीस अवतार, माता घाट (सेलानी), सीता वाटिका, धावड़ी कुंड, मार्कण्डेय शिला, मार्कण्डेय संन्यास आश्रम, अन्नपूर्णाश्रम, विज्ञान शाला, बड़े हनुमान, खेड़ापति हनुमान, ओंकार मठ, माता आनंदमयी आश्रम, ऋणमुक्तेश्वर महादेव, गायत्री माता मंदिर, सिद्धनाथ गौरी सोमनाथ, आड़े हनुमान, माता वैष्णोदेवी मंदिर, चाँद-सूरज दरवाजे, वीरखला, विष्णु मंदिर, ब्रह्मेश्वर मंदिर, सेगाँव के गजानन महाराज का मंदिर, काशी विश्वनाथ, नरसिंह टेकरी, कुबेरेश्वर महादेव, चन्द्रमोलेश्वर महादेव के मंदिर भी दर्शनीय हैं।

नर्मदा ही एक ऐसी नदी है जिसकी लाखों भक्तों द्वारा 1 हजार 780 मील की लंबी परिक्रमा की जाती है। नियम से उक्त परिक्रमा 108 दिनों में संपन्न की जाती है।